Fiber scaffolds for use creating implantable structures

ABSTRACT

A synthetic construct suitable for implantation into a biological organism that includes at least one polymer scaffold; wherein the at least one polymer scaffold includes at least one layer of polymer fibers that have been deposited by electrospinning; wherein the orientation of the fibers in the at least one polymer scaffold relative to one another is generally parallel, random, or both; and wherein the at least one polymer scaffold has been adapted to function as at least one of a substantially two-dimensional implantable structure and a substantially three-dimensional implantable tubular structure.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/631,387, filed Jun. 23, 2017, entitled “Fiber Scaffolds for Use Creating Implantable Structures,” which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/496,070, filed Sep. 25, 2014, entitled “Fiber Scaffolds for Use Creating Implantable Structures,” which claims priority to and benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/882,504, filed Sep. 25, 2013, entitled “Fiber Scaffolds for Use in Arteriovenus Shunts and Vascular Grafts,” each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Tissue engineering typically involves the synthesis of biologically relevant tissue for a wide range of applications including the replacement or support of damaged organs. A common strategy is culturing target specific cells in vitro in a scaffold followed by implantation of the scaffold into a biological organism. As a logical cellular source for tissue engineering, stem cells have attracted a great deal of attention due to their relatively fast rate of proliferation and diverse differentiation potential for various phenotypes. These include cells derived from several origins: induced pluripotent stem cells from fibroblasts, mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and adult stem cells from adipose tissue. Stem cells self-renew and their terminal differentiation depends on the influence of certain soluble molecules (e.g., growth factors, cytokines, etc.) as well as physical and biochemical interactions with the scaffold. Cellular behavior and subsequent tissue development at the cell-scaffold interface, therefore, involve adhesion, motility, proliferation, differentiation and functional maturity. The physicochemical properties of a scaffold, such as bulk chemistry, surface chemistry, topography, three-dimensionality and mechanical properties, all influence cellular response. Bulk chemistry can control cytotoxicity, as most scaffolds are made of biodegradable materials and must eventually release the by-products of their degradation. The effect of surface chemistry is often mediated by instantly adsorbed proteins such as fibronectin, collagen, fibrinogen, vitronectin, and immunoglobulin that affect phenotype, viability, and morphology, as well as proliferation and differentiation.

Studies regarding the effect of surface topography and texture on cellular response have been conducted. Stem cells are known to recognize topographical features on the order of hundreds of nanometers to several micrometers and exhibit distinctive genomic profiles in the absence of biochemical differentiation cues as well as a commitment to terminal differentiation. Electrospun scaffolds are ideal matrices for three-dimensional (3D) culture of cells and provide non-woven nano- to micro-sized fibrous microstructures typically having relative porosities of 70-90%. Natural biodegradable materials such as collagen, gelatin, elastin, chitosan, and hyaluronic acid, as well as synthetic biodegradable polymers such as poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(glycolic) acid (PGA) and poly(lactic) acid (PLA), have been electrospun for chondral and osseous applications.

In general, the broad utility of electrospun scaffolds for tissue engineering, wound healing, and organ replacement is clear (see Modulation of Embryonic Mesenchymal Progenitor Cell Differentiation via Control Over Pure Mechanical Modulus in Electrospun Nanofibers, Nama et al., Acta Biomaterialia 7, 1516-1524 (2011), which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, for all purposes) and the present invention provides, more specifically, polymer fiber constructs for use in the creation of nanofiber patches, as well as conduits for use in arteriovenous shunts for hemodialysis and blood vessel graft applications.

With regard to the creation of arteriovenous shunt grafts, the dysfunction of arteriovenous shunts in hemodialysis patients represents the single most common and burdensome complication in patients with end stage renal disease (see, US Renal Data System. USRDS Annual data report (2002); and Vascular Access in Hemodialysis: Issues, Management, and Emerging Concepts, Roy-Chaudhary et al., Cardiol Clin 23, 249-273 (2005), which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, for all purposes). More than 20% of all Medicare patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) have vascular access graft complications that cost the U.S. healthcare system billions of dollars per year in access site treatment costs (see, Hemodialysis vascular access morbidity, Feldman H I, Kobrin S, Wasserstein A, J Am Soc Nephrol 7, 523-35 (1996) and Vascular Access in Hemodialysis: Issues, Management, and Emerging Concepts, Roy-Chaudhary et al., Cardiol Clin 23, 249-273 (2005), which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, for all purposes. In most of these patients, there are basically two approaches to establishing a vascular access site. The first approach is to create a native arteriovenous fistula by surgically anastomosing a larger artery to a vein, with the junction created by way of normal biologic healing of the anastomosis, eventually serving as a vascular access site for dialysis needle placement. However, due to underlying diseases in late stages, many patients present blood vessels that are non-viable for creation of a native AV fistula. In these patients, synthetic vascular grafts are implanted to create a shunt from the arterial side to the venous side of the circulatory system with the synthetic conduit serving as the location for vascular access. Expanded PTFE and cuffed double lumen silicone and urethane catheters are commonly used options for vascular access for hemodialysis with the latter being placed in a central venous site and the former typical implanted in the arm typically connecting a peripheral artery to a vein. E-PTFE grafts are preferred to central venous catheters because they perform better, although they are still far inferior to the preferred native fistulas.

The most common complication reported is low patency rates in ePTFE grafts, i.e., 50% at 1 year, and only 25% at 2 years (see Vascular Access in Hemodialysis: Issues, Management, and Emerging Concepts, Roy-Chaudhary et al., Cardiol Clin 23, 249-273 (2005) and FIG. 6 , generally). Thus, only 1 in 4 patients with these synthetic grafts have unblocked (or patent) grafts at 2 years. The predominant source of this problem is that of neo-intimal hyperplasia, which occurs nearly 70% of the time at the venous anastomosis site of the graft, with the remainder of the graft blockages occurring at the arterial site or mid graft. Other complications include formation of pseudo-aneurysms in the graft (dilations), shredding of the graft wall due to repeated needle perforations, and thrombosis at needle perforations that do not close after needle removal. Secondarily, venous or arterial neo-intimal hyperplasia occurs due to the fact that the currently used ePTFE grafts are perceived by the host as a foreign body, eliciting an exuberant foreign body inflammatory response at the site of anastomosis, eventually resulting in hyperproliferation of cells that deposit undesirable tissue in the lumen of the graft or vein/artery at the anastomosis site or just downstream from the venous anastomosis location. In addition, current ePTFE conduits do not address compliance mismatch issues on the artery or venous side and clinicians point to this being another source of biological/biomechanical mismatch that results in hyperplastic response that leads to reduced patency rates. Another reason for lack of patency is the inability of ePTFE grafts to form a viable endothelial cell lining on the inner lumen, which if formed would be the ideal biological interface between the graft and the blood flow. Formation of a viable endothelial layer that presents the appropriate anti-thrombotic receptor site proteins to the blood flow would represent an ideal solution for AV shunt grafts. Finally, needle access sites in ePTFE grafts for dialysis are commonly reported sites for graft failures which can range from lack of closure/healing, blood stream and graft site infection, formation of pseudo aneurysms, and destruction of the graft wall due to multiple perforations, all of which require graft removal and replacement. These problems occur primarily due to two reasons: (1) inability of ePTFE conduits to self-close needle perforation site, and (2) inability of ePTFE conduits to produce biologic healing at needle perforation sites. The ability of the graft wall materials to self-close would represent a step forward in terms of reducing the damage caused by needle perforation and would limit the various complications. However, the inability of the synthetic ePTFE graft to go through a normal wound healing process, similar to what happens during vascular access at a venous or arterial site is a huge drawback. Since current grafts do not allow for effective cellular infiltration, angiogenesis, and tissue integration, they function primarily as a passive conduit and are susceptible to perforation related pin holing failures. If the graft wall is engineered to completely biointegrate, then there is an opportunity for the cellular, vascular, and tissue components that are present as a composite structure within the graft wall to respond with a biological healing response starting with hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and tissue remodeling towards a healed puncture site. Thus there is an ongoing need for a synthetic, implantable construct that overcomes these and other deficiencies of the prior art.

SUMMARY

The following provides a summary of certain exemplary embodiments of the present invention. This summary is not an extensive overview and is not intended to identify key or critical aspects or elements of the present invention or to delineate its scope.

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, a first synthetic construct suitable for implantation into a biological organism is provided. This synthetic construct includes at least one polymer scaffold; wherein the at least one polymer scaffold includes at least one layer of polymer fibers that have been deposited by electrospinning; wherein the orientation of the fibers in the at least one polymer scaffold relative to one another is generally parallel, random, or both; and wherein the at least one polymer scaffold has been adapted to function as at least one of a substantially two-dimensional implantable structure and a substantially three-dimensional implantable tubular structure.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a second synthetic construct suitable for implantation into a biological organism is provided. This synthetic construct includes at least one polymer scaffold; wherein the at least one polymer scaffold includes at least one layer of polymer fibers that have been deposited by electrospinning; wherein the orientation of the fibers in the at least one polymer scaffold relative to one another is generally parallel, random, or both; and wherein the at least one polymer scaffold is a substantially three-dimensional structure that is adapted for use as an arteriovenous shunt.

In yet another aspect of this invention, a third synthetic construct suitable for implantation into a biological organism is provided. This synthetic construct includes at least one polymer scaffold; wherein the at least one polymer scaffold includes at least one layer of polymer fibers that have been deposited by electrospinning; wherein the orientation of the fibers in the at least one polymer scaffold relative to one another is generally parallel, random, or both; and wherein the at least one polymer scaffold is a substantially three-dimensional structure that is adapted for use as a vascular implant; stent; graft; conduit; or combinations thereof.

Additional features and aspects of the present invention will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading and understanding the following detailed description of the exemplary embodiments. As will be appreciated by the skilled artisan, further embodiments of the invention are possible without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the Figures and associated descriptions are to be regarded as illustrative and not restrictive in nature.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and form a part of the specification, schematically illustrate one or more exemplary embodiments of the invention and, together with the general description given above and detailed description given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention, and wherein:

FIG. 1 is a photograph that depicts an electrospun tube (left); an electrospun tube with ridges (middle); and a Dacron vascular graft with ridges (right);

FIG. 2 is a photograph that depicts an electrospun PCL tube;

FIG. 3 is a photograph that depicts an electrospun PCL tube with ridges;

FIG. 4 is a photograph that depicts a Dacron vascular graft with ridges;

FIG. 5 is a photograph that depicts an electrospun graft wherein the material includes a gradient of PET on the left to PU on the right creating a gradient from stiff to elastic, respectively;

FIG. 6 is a photograph that depicts a metallic vascular stent with electrospun fibers deposited directly onto the stent;

FIG. 7 is a table that provides measurements of puncture holes in different materials with a 17 gauge dialysis needle; Dacron and Goretex were used ‘off the shelf’ and PCL, PET, and PU were electrospun sheets;

FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of the effect of incorporating chitosan into an exemplary scaffold of this invention; and

FIG. 9 includes a series of photographs depicting fluorescent nanodiamonds (left); a scanning electron micrograph of fibers with nanodiamonds (middle); and hiPSC-CMs stained with green sarcomeric α-actinin, blue nucleus and red fluorescent nanodiamonds to label the fibers (right).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Exemplary embodiments of the present invention are now described with reference to the Figures. Although the following detailed description contains many specifics for purposes of illustration, a person of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that many variations and alterations to the following details are within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the following embodiments of the invention are set forth without any loss of generality to, and without imposing limitations upon, the claimed invention.

With reference generally to the Figures, the present invention involves the development and construction of implantable artificial organs and tissues for humans and/or animals, and more specifically to a process or method for manufacturing two and three-dimensional polymer microscale and nanoscale structures for use as scaffolds in the growth of biological structures such as hollow organs, luminal structures, and/or other structures within the body. The use of these scaffolds in creating or repairing numerous and multiple biological tissues and structures, e.g., the trachea, esophagus, small intestine, large intestine, duodenum, jejunum, cardiovascular tissues, bone, etc., is contemplated by and included in this invention. Exemplary versions of the manufacturing process of this invention include preparing a preform that is based on an actual native tissue and/or organ; electrospinning one or more layers of nanoscale (less than 1000 nanometers) or microscale (less than 50 microns) polymer fibers on the preform to form a nanofiber-based scaffold. The fibers are typically formed by electrospinning by extruding a polymer solution from a fiberization tip; creating an electronic field proximate to the fiberization tip; and positioning a ground or opposite polarity within the preform. The preform may be rotated to align the fibers on the preform or a second ground or polarity may be placed in the preform and rapidly switching the electric field to align the fibers. The microscale and nanoscale polymer fibers may be randomly aligned or maybe substantially parallel or both. These nanofiber structures may be seeded with one or more types of biological cells prior to implantation in the body to increase the rate of tissue growth into the scaffold. The polymer scaffold may include autologous cells or allogeneic cells, and wherein the autologous cells or allogeneic cells further include cord blood cells, platelets, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent cells, mesenchymal cells, placental cells, bone marrow derived cells, hematopoietic cells, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, blood, blood plasma, platelet rich plasma, stromal vascular fraction, dental pulp, fibroblasts, or combinations thereof. These biological cells may be applied to the surface of the scaffold or distributed throughout the scaffold matrix utilizing perfusion within a bioreactor.

Choosing a material that accurately mimics the mechanical properties of the native tissue or organ may promote proper stem cell differentiation and facilitate normal function of the replacement tissue or organ. Included materials may be non-resorbable for permanent implantation or may be designed to slowly degrade while the host body rebuilds the native tissue. In the latter case, the implanted prosthesis will eventually be completely resorbed. Permanent (i.e., non-resorbable) polymers may include polyethylene, polyethylene oxide, polyethylene terephthalate, polyester, polymethylmethacrylate, polyacrylonitrile, silicone, polyurethane, polycarbonate, polyether ketone ketone, polyether ether ketone, polyether imide, polyamide, polystyrene, polyether sulfone, polysulfone, polyvinyl acetate, or combinations thereof. Degradable (resorbable) materials may include polycaprolactone (PCL); polylactic acid (PLA); polyglycolic acid (PGA); polydioxanone (PDO); Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV); trim ethylene carbonate (TMC); polydiols, gelatin, collagen, fibronectin, or combinations thereof. Fibers may be electrospun onto a preform with a desired prosthesis shape. An exemplary mandrel (preform) is coated with Teflon or similar material to facilitate removal of the scaffold after deposition or a slight taper (e.g., about 1°) can be manufactured into the mandrel. Nearly any size or shape can be produced from the electrospun fibers by using a pre-shaped form and the fiber deposition methods of the present invention.

Closely mimicking the structural aspects of the tissue or organ is important with regard to replicating the function of the native tissue or organ. By controlling the orientation of the fibers and assembling a composite structure of different materials and/or different fiber orientations it is possible to control and direct cell orientation and differentiation. Fiber orientation can be altered in each layer of a composite or sandwich scaffold in addition to the material and porosity to most closely mimic the native tissue. A properly constructed scaffold will permit substantially complete cellular penetration and uniform seeding for proper function and prevention of necrotic areas developing. If the fiber packing is too dense, then cells may not be able to penetrate or migrate from the exposed surfaces into the inner portions of the scaffold. However, if the fiber packing is not close enough, then attached cells may not be able to properly fill the voids, communicate and signal each other and a complete tissue or organ may not be developed. Controlling fiber diameter can be used to change scaffold porosity as the porosity scales with fiber diameter. Alternatively, blends of different polymers may be electrospun together and one polymer preferentially dissolved to increase scaffold porosity. The properties of the fibers can be controlled to optimize the fiber diameter, the fiber spacing or porosity, the morphology of each fiber such as the porosity of the fibers or the aspect ratio, varying the shape from round to ribbon-like. The precursor solution described below may be controlled to optimize the modulus or other mechanical properties of each fiber, the fiber composition, and/or the degradation rate (from rapidly biosoluble to biopersistent). The fibers may also be formed as drug eluting fibers, anti-bacterial fibers or the fibers may be conductive fibers, radio opaque fibers to aid in positioning or locating the fibers in an x-ray, CT or other scan.

In accordance with certain embodiments of this invention, the process of electrospinning is driven by the application of a high voltage, typically between 0 and 30 kV, to a droplet of a polymer solution or melt at a flow rate between 0 and 50 ml/h to create a condition of charge separation between two electrodes and within the polymer solution to produce a polymer jet. A typical polymer solution would consist of a polymer such as polycaprolactone, polystyrene, or polyethersulfone and a solvent such as 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoro-2-propanol, N,N-Dimethylformamide, acetone, or tetrahydrofuran in a concentration range of 1-50 wt %. As the jet of polymer solution travels toward the electrode it is elongated into small diameter fibers having a diameter of about 100 nm to 50 μm. The surfaces of the polymer fibers have been modified to include pores (having a size of about 100 nm to 250 μm), dimples, hairs, or combinations thereof.

In accordance with certain embodiments of this invention, an exemplary preparation of electrospinning solution typically includes polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polycaprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), polyurethane (PU), polycarbonate (PC), polyamide (Nylon), natural polymers such as collagen; gelatin; fibrin; fibronectin; albumin; hyaluronic acid; elastin; or combinations thereof that are mixed with a solvent and dissolved. Suitable solvents include acetone; dimethylformamide; dimethylsulfoxide; N-Methylpyrrolidone; acetonitrile; hexanes; ether; dioxane; ethyl acetate; pyridine; toluene; xylene; tetrahydrofuran; trifluoroacetic acid; trifluoroethanol; hexafluoroisopropanol; acetic acid; dimethylacetamide; chloroform; dichloromethane; formic acid; water; alcohols; ionic compounds; or combinations thereof. The electrospinning solution may further include additives selected from the group consisting of fluorescence compounds; radio opaque compounds; anti-bacterial compounds; anti-inflammatory compounds; growth hormones; conductive compounds; ceramic compounds; metallic compounds; cell growth promoting compounds; proteins; hormones; cytokines; and combinations thereof.

A substrate or form is typically prepared for the deposition of nanofibers. Optionally, simulated cartilage or other supportive tissue may be applied to the form and the fibers are then sprayed onto or transferred onto a form to build up the scaffold. While the present invention may be useful for the preparation of a number of bodily tissues, including hollow organs, three-dimensional structures within the body such as trachea, esophagus, intestine or luminal structures, such as nerves (epineurium or perineurium), veins and arteries (aorta, tunica externa, external elastic lamina, tunica medica, internal elastic lamina, tunica inima) the preparation of a human trachea is shown by example herein. Other preforms for species such as primates, cats, dogs, horses and cattle may be produced. The design of the implantable synthetic construct may also be based on a CAD model of a patient's actual relevant anatomy, wherein the CAD model has been derived from a CT scan or MRI of the relevant organ, tissue, or other native structure. U-shaped, branched, and spiral structures are also aspects of the present invention.

The effects of mechanical strain on electrospun polymer scaffolds has been described in the literature (see, Microstructure-Property Relationships in a Tissue Engineering Scaffold, Johnson et al., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 104, 2919-2927 (2007) and Quantitative Analysis of Complex Glioma Cell Migration on Electrospun Polycaprolcatone Using Time-Lapse Microscopy, Johnson et al., Tissue Engineering; Part C, Volume 15, Number 4, 531-540 (2009), which are incorporated by reference herein, in their entirety, for all purposes. Strains as low as 10% appear to rearrange and align the fibers in the direction of loading. This alignment increases with the applied strain until over 60% of the fibers are aligned within ±10% of the direction of applied stress. If cells are present during fiber rearrangement in vivo or in vitro, they could conceivably be affected by these changes depending on the overall rate of strain. Fiber alignment is retained following a single cycle of extension and release. This has significant biological implications for a broad array of future tissue-engineering operations. As cells move across such a substrate, biased motion is likely as locomotion is based on forming and then dissolving a series of focal adhesions. Formation of these adhesions along the fiber direction may be easier than for fibers perpendicular to that direction although this will be partially controlled by the spacing between the fibers. This has longer-term consequences for the eventual control of the architecture of tissues that develop upon such substrates.

Cellular mobility parallel to the fiber direction means that it is possible to control and direct cell proliferation and migration by prestraining scaffolds to align the fibers in certain directions. This would create tailored structures with highly aligned fibers and, as a result, highly aligned cells. Of additional importance is the fact that many envisioned applications of tissue-engineering scaffolds will involve the use of cyclic stresses designed to achieve specific architectures in the biological component of the developing tissue. If the scaffold experiences continuing hysteresis in which orientation increases versus the number of cycles the efficiency of the overall process will be greatly enhanced. For blood vessels, as an example, the application of cyclic pressures will produce preferential stresses that could cause significant alignment of the fibers in the circumferential direction. This could cause cellular alignment in the circumferential direction, potentially creating a more biomimetic arrangement.

Cell seeding of these electrospun scaffolds can be accomplished through a variety of techniques, including (by way of example) vacuum seeding, perfusion seeding, or filtration seeding. Since the scaffolds are porous, the cells and culture media can be perfused through the scaffolds, thereby entrapping the cells and allowing the media to flow through. Any type of cell may be seeded into the scaffold, including (by way of example) autologous cells or allogeneic cells, and wherein the autologous cells or allogeneic cells further include cord blood cells, platelets, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent cells, mesenchymal cells, placental cells, bone marrow derived cells, hematopoietic cells, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, blood, blood plasma, platelet rich plasma, stromal vascular fraction, dental pulp, fibroblasts, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the cells are added to the scaffold immediately before implantation into the patient, while in other embodiments, the cells are cultured for a predetermined time period (e.g. hours or days) on the scaffold before the implantation thereof into the patient. The polymer fibers of the scaffolds may also be coated, treated or impregnated with at least one compound that promotes cellular attachment to the scaffold and subsequent proliferation, angiogenesis, and tissue synthesis; or promotes engraftment of the scaffold into the biological organism. The least one compound may include proteins, peptides, growth factors, cytokines, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents, anti-neoplastic agents, or combinations thereof.

Exemplary embodiments and variants of the present invention include the following general features and/or aspects: (i) a composite scaffold seeded with stem cells and promoted to differentiate into stratified tissue; (ii) separate scaffold layers or sheets seeded independently to form different types of tissue and then assembled together using sutures, adhesive or welding to form a tubular shape and the stratified tissue; (iii) a scaffold implanted without cells for immediate replacement of damaged tissue and allow for cellular migration in vivo; (iv) an electrospun fiber scaffold made from non-resorbable materials such as polyethylene terephthalate, polyurethane, polycarbonate, poly ether ketone ketone; (v) an electrospun fiber scaffold made from resorbable materials such as polycaprolactone, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid; (vi) an electrospun fiber scaffold made from natural polymers such as collagen, gelatin, fibronectin, hyaluronic acid; chitosan; alginate; or any combination of material types; (vii) an electrospun fiber scaffold made from a single layer of oriented fibers or a composite comprising layers of oriented fiber to correspond to the native structure and help orient and differentiate cells (fiber orientation can be from a rotating mandrel (circumferential fiber alignment), a translating mandrel (longitudinal fiber alignment), or split ground method of using electrostatics to align the fiber); (viii) using a pre-shaped mandrel or form to deposit fibers onto to achieve a near net shaped organs; and (ix) using a pre-shaped mandrel or form to deposit fibers onto to achieve a near net shaped segment/patch.

The polymer fiber scaffolds of the present invention may be used to manufacture two-dimensional biocompatible patches of varying thickness for use in humans or animals as an aid in wound healing involving muscles, internal organs, bones, cartilage, and/or external tissues. Biocompatible materials typically elicit little or no immune response in human or veterinary applications. In one or more exemplary embodiments, these patches include substantially parallel electrospun nanoscale and microscale polymer fibers. These patches may be seeded with biological cells prior to use to increase the rate of tissue growth into the patch. Such biological cells may include autologous or allogenic cells such as cord blood cells, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent cells, mesenchymal cells, placental cells, bone marrow derived cells, hematopoietic cells, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and chondrocytes. Examples of internal uses include tissue, ocular tissue (lens, cornea, optic nerve or retina), intestinal tissue, internal organs such as the liver, kidney, spleen, pancreas, esophagus, trachea, uterus, stomach, bladder, muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, dura matter and other brain structures, dental structures, blood vessels and other bodily structures. Examples of external uses may include wound dressings, burn and abrasion coverings, and recovery aides to inhibit the formation of scar tissue. External structures are typically the skin but may include the cornea or surface of the eye, the ear canal, the mouth and nasal passages or the nail bed. In some embodiments, the patches of the present invention are modified to be electrically conductive.

With regard to the creation of arteriovenous shunt grafts in accordance with the present invention, various solutions to the challenges described above are provided herein. The primary facilitating factor in achieving these solutions is the ability to design and manufacture tailored electrospun grafts that are manufactured from the nanometer or micrometer length scale to render specific properties in the graft wall through the thickness as well as along the length of the graft itself from the arterial side to the venous side. With reference to FIGS. 1-7 , a first embodiment provides a nanofibered graft material that is created using elastomeric fibers assembled in orientations that allow for complete or almost complete self-closure of the needle access site. This tailored nanofibered graft material can be fabricated from a multitude of biocompatible biomaterials (polyurethane, polycaprolactone, polyethylene terephthalate, etc., or combinations thereof). A second embodiment provides a nanofibered graft that contains macroscopic radial reinforcements or ridges to increase the kink resistance of the conduit, allowing it to be placed in a bent configuration without collapse of the lumen. An alternative approach to increasing kink resistance is to incorporate helically wound or spirally wound fiber reinforcements into the graft wall at the nano, micro, or macro length scales to mimic natural medial and adventitial collagen orientations. A third embodiment provides a graft that varies in compliance from the arterial side to the venous side in a manner as to reduce the mismatch in compliance between the sides through different fiber orientations; different materials; different graft thicknesses; different processing methods; or combinations thereof. A fourth embodiment encompasses the structure of all the previously described grafts at the nano or micro length scale wherein the outside surface of the graft and a certain percentage of the wall thickness (up to 90% of the wall from the outside in) are engineered with nanofibered assemblies to mimic the extracellular matrix of a natural blood vessel or alternately to mimic the ECM of stromal tissue to induce maximal biointegration through the vessel wall, natural tissue stratification, and establish a confluent endothelial layer on the lumen. This unique feature addresses several issues including improved vessel to graft incorporation and biomechanical compliance matching, and self-healing of needle perforation sites by way of biologic wound repair mechanisms. Improved vessel to graft incorporation as the primary outcome is achieved by controlling and limiting the foreign body response to much lower levels than what is typically seen with current ePTFE grafts. A fifth embodiment relates to the luminal surface of all the above graft designs wherein the inner surface (intimal surface) of the nanofibered graft is engineered using synthetic materials to replicate the ultrastructure of the sub-intimal collagenous basement membrane typically found in native blood vessels. This nanostructured luminal surface promotes attachment of circulating cells and their phenotypic modification to endothelial cells following attachment to the luminal surface, thereby preventing thrombosis and neointimal hyperplasia. In some embodiments (as described below) the arteriovenous shunt is electrically conductive, and in other embodiments, a hood-like structure is formed on one or both ends thereof.

Certain embodiments of the present invention are also useful for vascular implants; stents; grafts; conduits; or combinations thereof, some of which may include a hood-like structure formed on one or both ends thereof, and some of which are electrically conductive. Relatively low modulus polymers such as PCL, PET, PGLA, and PU may be included in the fiber scaffolds of this embodiment. Polymer fibers may be aligned in a circumferential direction to provide improved burst pressure strength and/or to align the endothelial cells on the lumen to mimic native vessels. Tri-layered tubes may be made using different fiber alignments, different polymers, and different porosities to mimic native vessels. A core/shell fiber structure may be utilized for providing an outer shell that is biocompatible and anti-thrombogenic while an inner core provides rigidity and mechanical strength. Drugs, antibiotics, growth factors, cytokines and other molecules may be embedded in the fibers for gradual time-release. Multiple polymers may be co-electrospun to produce individual fibers of each polymer or the polymers may be mixed in solution to produce fibers of mixed polymers. Sacrificial fibers or particles may be added that can be preferentially dissolved to create additional porosity throughout the scaffold.

With regard to the creation of tissue engineered vascular grafts, the fiber scaffolds of the present invention enhance biocompatibility and provide for controlled degradation of the constructs (post implantation), thereby permitting replacement of an implant with new natural vasculature. A significant benefit of these features is reduction or elimination of occlusion in the area(s) receiving the graft(s). The combination of water-soluble chitosan and polycaprolactone (in a ratio of 2% chitosan to 98% polycaprolactone, for example) results in a unique construct, the degradation of which can be controlled or at least predicted. In an exemplary embodiment, polycaprolactone (Mn 70,000-90,000, Lot #MKBB8278) and chitosan (Medium molecular weight, Lot #MKBH1108V) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich Co, LLC (Missouri, USA). 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoroisopropanol (Lot #F13E) was purchased from Oakwood Products, Inc. (South Carolina, USA). Formic acid (98%, Lot #K41305364) and acetic acid (99.7%, Lot #51154) were purchased from EMD Chemicals, Inc. (New Jersey, USA). For electrospinning, 3-10 wt % polycaprolactone (PCL) was dissolved in 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP) via rigorous stirring by a magnetic stir bar for 24 hours. The solution was transferred into a 60 cc syringe capped with a 20 gauge blunt needle, and loaded into a syringe pump (Fisher). The syringe was dispensed at a flow rate of 5 mL/hr and a grounded target was set up at a distance of 15 cm. A mandrel with a 500 μm diameter was positioned between the needle and the target, set 13 cm from the needle tip and rotated at 5000 RPM. To begin electrospinning, a +10 kV charge was applied to the syringe tip. All scaffolds were spun to a 150 μm wall thickness. To create PCL/CS blended grafts, 3-10 wt % PCL and 1-50 wt % chitosan (CS) relative to PCL was dissolved in a 7:3 w/w solution of formic acid (FA) and acetic acid (AA) and stirred via a magnetic stir bar for 3 hours. This solution was electrospun onto a low speed mandrel. The PCL/CS solution was dispensed at a flow rate of 0.1-10 mL/hr and a grounded mandrel was positioned 10 cm from the needle tip and rotated at 30 RPM. A+25 kV charge was applied to the syringe tip and electrospun to create a 150 μm wall thickness. Electrospinning the 3-10 wt % PCL+HFIP solution was also performed onto the slow speed mandrel using the same set up as the PCL/CS solution. The solution was dispensed at 5 mL/hr and electrospun at +12 kV onto a grounded mandrel to a wall thickness of 150 μm.

Research has indicated that it is possible to achieve about a 50% loss in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) in 2 weeks of in vitro degradation by incorporating chitosan. A desirable decrease in strain to failure and tensile strength indicates that the chitosan is accelerating the degradation of the nanofiber scaffolds. FIG. 8 provides a graphic representation of the effect of incorporating chitosan into an exemplary scaffold and lists some important benefits of including chitosan into the scaffold. Pure polycaprolactone (PCL) takes approximately 1 year to degrade in vivo, but by incorporating chitosan (CS) it is possible to tailor scaffold degradation from 4 weeks to 1 year based on the amount of CS. PCL lacks integrin binding sites for cell attachment; however, CS provides integrin binding sites. Because CS degrades rapidly, it creates additional porosity which facilitates cellular penetration into the scaffold and CS has well documented benefits including anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties. FIG. 8 illustrates a combination of PCL+chitosan; however, it is also possible to blend chitosan into any synthetic or natural polymer to increase biocompatibility, anti-bacterial properties, and increase degradation rate. Chitosan can be difficult to electrospin effectively, so solvent blends are used that may include specifically HFIP, acetic acid (AA) and formic acid (AA), trifluoroethanol (TFE), trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), chloroform, dichloromethane (DCM), acetone, ethanol and methyl ether ketone (MEK).

Advantageously, it is possible to tailor or “tune” the mechanical properties of the constructs of the present invention by controlling the rotational speed of the mandrel/tube used in the electrospinning fiber deposition process. Essentially, rotational speed controls the radial stiffness of the resultant construct. The faster the rotational speed, the greater the degree of fiber alignment and overall stiffness, thereby increasing burst pressure strength and decreasing compliance. Native artery and vein data obtained through experimentation illustrate that it is possible to accurately reproduce grafts for both AV shunt applications and tissue engineered vascular graft applications using this approach.

Cells and tissues in the human body utilize electrical impulses to function (e.g., heart and skeletal muscle and nerve transmission). Healthy cells and tissue typically have a conductivity of approximately 0.16 S/m. Accordingly, synthetic scaffolds being implanted in the body may benefit from being conductive to facilitate cellular interaction. In one embodiment of the present invention, 50 nm nanodiamonds (NDs) that are both permanently fluorescent and electrically conductive have been embedded into an aligned nanofiber scaffold (see FIG. 9 ) for improving electrical conductivity across the scaffold, which may be an implantable patch or other structure. These embedded items are believed to improve the conduction velocity, excitation-contraction coupling (EC) of the cardiomyocytes on the patch, and the overall contractile kinetics of the patch. The biomimetic technology of these conductive nanofiber scaffolds provide a novel tissue engineered construct that, presumably, will improve cell migration and wound healing. NDs are mass produced and routinely used for industrial drilling and grinding applications, but more recently have been used for composites and thin film applications due to their demonstrated electrical conductivity. In addition to making the scaffold conductive, the NDs offer additional functionality to the patch, including long term in vivo fluorescence tracking, magnetic resonance imaging (MM) contrast, and drug delivery. In still other embodiments of this invention, electrical conductivity is conferred to synthetic scaffolds by incorporating carbon nanotubes (CNT) or polyaniline (PANI) therein.

To make the fibers of the synthetic scaffolds of the present invention electrically conductive, one or more conductive materials are introduced into the polymer solution prior to beginning the process of electrospinning. Typically, conductive materials have poor mechanical properties for use in tissue engineering constructs. However, once the percolation threshold is reached by the addition of a sufficient concentration of conductive material (ranging from about 0.01 wt % to about 10 wt %) to another material which is non-conductive, adequate mechanical properties can be maintained while making the scaffold electrically conductive. FIG. 9 includes a series of photographs depicting fluorescent nanodiamonds (left); a scanning electron micrograph of fibers with nanodiamonds (middle); and hiPSC-CMs stained with green sarcomeric α-actinin, blue nucleus and red fluorescent nanodiamonds to label the fibers (right). The concentration of 50 nm diamonds used is sufficiently high as to cause the entire nanofibers to fluoresce.

While the present invention has been illustrated by the description of exemplary embodiments thereof, and while the embodiments have been described in certain detail, it is not the intention of the Applicant to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to any of the specific details, representative devices and methods, and/or illustrative examples shown and described. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the spirit or scope of the applicant's general inventive concept. 

1. A scaffold comprising: at least one layer of electrospun polymer fibers having an orientation relative to one another that is generally parallel, random, or a combination thereof; wherein a surface of the at least one layer comprises protrusions.
 2. The scaffold of claim 1, having a shape selected from the group consisting of a patch, an arteriovenous shunt, a vascular implant, a stent, a graft, a conduit, and combinations thereof.
 3. The scaffold of claim 1, having a shape comprising ridges that increase kink resistance.
 4. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise a non-resorbable material selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polyethylene oxide, polyethylene terephthalate, polyester, polymethylmethacrylate, polyacrylonitrile, silicone, polyurethane, polycarbonate, polyether ketone ketone, polyether ether ketone, polyether imide, polyamide, polystyrene, polyether sulfone, polysulfone, polyvinyl acetate, and combinations thereof.
 5. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise a resorbable material selected from the group consisting of polycaprolactone, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, polydioxanone, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate), trim ethylene carbonate, polydiols, and combinations thereof.
 6. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise a natural polymer selected from the group consisting of collagen, gelatin, fibrin, fibronectin, albumin, hyaluronic acid, elastin, chitosan, alginate, and combinations thereof.
 7. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise an elastomeric material selected from the group consisting of polyurethane, polycaprolactone, polyethylene terephthalate, polydioxanone, chitosan, and combinations thereof.
 8. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise a polymer selected from the group consisting of polycaprolactone, chitosan, and combinations thereof.
 9. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise about 90% polycaprolactone by weight, and about 10% chitosan by weight.
 10. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers comprise from about 3% to about 10% polycaprolactone by weight, and about 1% to about 50% chitosan by weight relative to the polycaprolactone.
 11. The scaffold of claim 1, further comprising at least one type of biological cell.
 12. The scaffold of claim 11, wherein the at least one type of biological cell is selected from the group consisting of cord blood cells, platelets, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent cells, mesenchymal cells, placental cells, bone marrow derived cells, hematopoietic cells, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, blood, blood plasma, platelet rich plasma, stromal vascular fraction, dental pulp, fibroblasts, and any combinations thereof.
 13. The scaffold of claim 1, further comprising a treatment selected from the group consisting of proteins, peptides, growth factors, cytokines, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents, anti-neoplastic agents, fluorescence compounds, radio opaque compounds, electrically conductive compounds, ceramic compounds, metallic compounds, cell growth promoting compounds, hormones, cytokines, and any combinations thereof.
 14. The scaffold of claim 1, further comprising selectively dissolvable particles, fibers, or materials.
 15. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the electrospun polymer fibers have a diameter of about 100 nm to about 50 μm and a pore size of about 100 nm to about 250 μm.
 16. The scaffold of claim 1, wherein the protrusions are selected from the group consisting of dimples, hairs, and any combination thereof.
 17. The scaffold of claim 1, further comprising an electrically conductive material selected from the group consisting of nanodiamonds, polyaniline, and combinations thereof.
 18. The scaffold of claim 1, further comprising macroscopic radial reinforcements.
 19. The scaffold of claim 18, wherein the macroscopic radial reinforcements comprise helically wound or spirally wound fibered assemblies. 20-24. (canceled) 